Forensic Social Work with International Populations Case Study
by Danielle Clark, Kristin Clements, Christina Daoust, Nicole DeCarufel, and Erin Ward
University of Central Florida
Social workers must work to understand and protect all persons of potential human rights issues or violations, not only because it falls under the practice responsibilities on the national and international level, but also because social workers are ethically committed to preserving the rights of all individuals. The Universal declaration of Human Rights is available on the United Nations website and some of the basic tenants of this declaration are that everyone has the right to: fair housing, health, education, freedom of religion, safe employment with fair compensation, life, liberty and security of person, to not be held in slavery, and to not be subjected to torture or degrading treatment or punishment (www.un.org). Unfortunately, there are currently many circumstances throughout the world where an individual’s basic human rights are not being met and it our responsibility as social workers to advocate for these clients and to assist them however we can. Being from other countries and cultures, these clients are often not able to navigate the legal system themselves; therefore it is important for a forensic social worker to recognize the special needs of these populations on a macro and micro level in order to better assist them. Background According to their website, the International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) is a “global organization striving for social justice, human rights and social development through the development of social work, best practices and international cooperation between social workers and their professional organizations” (http://www.ifsw.org/). The IFSW was founded in 1956 and was adapted from the Permanent Secretariat of Social Workers that was established in 1928. This IFSW is one of many organizations that have helped to raise awareness and protect human rights in several nations. The committee members are quite diverse and come from all over the world, in places such as the United Kingdom, Africa, Singapore, Denmark, New Zealand, Brazil, and Canada. The IFSW adopted the first international code of ethics in 1976 and is guided by specific principles. Social workers are to abide by certain principles and help to defend and protect an individual’s, family’s, and/or community’s well being whether it be on a physical, emotional, or spiritual level. Some of the ongoing challenges social workers face include, but are not limited to: discrimination (race, gender, religion, socioeconomic status, etc.), lack of resources or difficulty distributing resources, unfair practices and policies, and lack of support (government, community, or individual) (http://www.ifsw.org/). Practice – Settings, Roles & Ethics The Social Work profession has always been committed to Social Justice, with an emphasis on the vulnerable and oppressed individuals. The Code of Ethics embodies this commitment and the values that Social Workers hold (Hodge, 2008). One of the most important issues to address in the field of international social work is human trafficking, which has become a new found social problem that holds little literature and research in the Social Work field. This is surprising, considering the values in which Social Work stands upon. Due to much lobbying, the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000, with its amendment in 2003, is the first response to the Human trafficking outcry (Hodge, 2008). This Act recognizes that our current judicial system lacks the legislation to help victims of Human Trafficking and that existing laws failed to protect the victims of this crime once they were found. As well as lobbying to pass legislation there are many roles that social workers play in order to help groups and individuals of need (Hodge, 2008).
Advocacy has become a major aspect of Social Work, and with this particular group of individuals, may help obtain the resources needed to rebuild their lives. There are many aspects to advocating for these victims; such as changing public norms and the media to protect victims from sexual exploitation by discouraging images that promote violence and eroticization (Hodge, 2008). Advocacy can also exist in working to enforce stricter penalties on offenders and consistency of enforcing these penalties through current law enforcement personnel. An efficient means in helping to protect victims would be to participate in organizing, multidisciplinary teams (Hodge, 2008). These teams would include an array of professionals including; lawyers, certified legal representatives, paralegals, refugee case managers, volunteers, interpreters, and local and federal law enforcement (Maschi, 2009). The goal in working with different professionals is to bring together people that are the most likely to identify potential victims, provide protective and rehabilitation services, and help in the rebuilding of their lives (Hodge, 2008). As well as working with different professionals, social workers must also be active workers in many types of settings within Forensic social work.
Refugee resettlement agencies, private non-profit agencies, immigration detention centers and also immigration services are just a few of the forensic social work settings that could be involved with this group of individuals (Maschi, 2009). By using these fellow professionals and working in an array of settings social workers can play a more significant role in alleviating our common day form of modern-slavery (Hodge, 2008). However, when working with these individuals, as well as many other groups of individuals, it sometimes becomes difficult to put ones personal ethics aside to focus on the needs of the client. Often when researchers are collecting data on these women and children, they must witness violent and/or illegal acts. When in these settings, it is important however, to not interact with the illegal or violent issue occurring. Any intervention could result in a harmful way instead of a positive one (Cwikel, 2005).
Also, when dealing with these victims it is important to accentuate strength-empowerment. If victims become too reliant on their social worker, it could have a major negative impact on their lives when the social worker has completed their duties. This is one of the many challenges that social workers are faced with when they are working with a population that may not have any support system. The most important thing in a client/ social worker setting is to have trust within that relationship (Maschi, 2009). The trauma this population has endured will make trust much harder to form. The social worker will function as an advocate, an educator, a mediator, and will also be involved in the treatment/therapy and referrals for every client. This population of victims has endured such trauma that a social worker will be a key to their recovery and the rebuilding of their lives. Theory Human Trafficking, in and of itself, is a theory of modern day slavery. According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services fact sheet “after drug dealing, human trafficking is tied with the illegal arms industry as the second largest criminal industry in the world today, and it is the fastest growing.” Maschi, Bradley and Ward stated that, “people are trafficked into many forms of work including: farm work, construction, factory work, commercial sex work, domestic services, restaurant work, begging, and so on” (2009).
Due to the variations in types of trafficking, social work practitioners need to recognize that human trafficking victims come in many different forms. Victims can include men, women and children from any race and nationality. Not only do victims come in different forms, but they also enter the human trafficking “ring” under various circumstances. In most cases, “traffickers use force, fraud and coercion to compel women, men and children to engage in these activities” (U.S., 2009). When working with victims of human trafficking, social work practitioners should take into account the four theories of victimization. The theories are as follows:
1.) The victim precipitation theory: “views victimology from the standpoint that the victim themselves may actually initiate, either passively or actively, the criminal act that ultimately leads to injury or death. During passive precipitation the victim unconsciously exhibits behaviors or characteristics that instigate or encourage the attack…Active precipitation is the opposite of the aforementioned. Victimization occurs under this theory through the threatening or provocative actions of the victim” (Lain, 2008).
2.) The lifestyle theory: “purports that individuals are targeted based on their lifestyle choices which expose them to criminal offenders and situations in which crimes may be committed” (Lain, 2008).
3.) The deviant place theory: states that the more you place yourself in dangerous places and environments, the more likely you are to become a target of a crime, even if you take safety precautions (Siegel, 2009 & Lain, 2008).
4.) The routine activity theory: “explains the rate of victimization through a set of situations that reflect the routines of typical individuals. 1. The availability of suitable targets, 2. The absence of capable guardians, 3. The presence of motivated offenders. According to this theory, the presence of one or more of these creates a higher risk of victimization” (Lain, 2008).
These theories tell us that there is not just one main cause for a person to become victimized. These theories also allow for practitioners to gain a better understanding of the context in which a person was entered into the human trafficking business. Thus, practitioners may be able to dig deeper with clients to uncover important information pertaining to their case at hand (if there is one), as well as provide clients with better, more personalized resources to help them put their lives back together again.
These theories may also play a significant role in the prevention of human trafficking. Practitioners may be able to help combat a rising human trafficking rate, by simply advocating on behalf of these victims and providing the general public with information that might help safeguard them from being sold into this horrific trade. For example, based on the four theories, practitioners might suggest that the public protect themselves by being extra cautious when replying to job ads (especially ads located abroad). Practitioners might also encouraging women and young girls to not dress too provocatively and to stay away from dangerous neighborhoods or locations that might not be safe. The results of such preventative measures could produce more public awareness on the issue, which in turn might help to lower the currently rising rate of people being trafficked. SocioLegal Environment (PIE and the Two Pronged Approach) This section will address the SocioLegal environment or two pronged approach in which social workers assist victims of human trafficking and refugees seeking asylum in the United States. Social Workers are most likely to engage with refugees, asylees’s and victims of human trafficking in the courts, diversions and community social services. The Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA) passed in 2000 by the United States government protects victims who have been trafficked into the U.S for domestic or sexual servitude, bondage or slavery (Maschi, Bradley, Ward 2009). In order to attain a T-Visa, which would allow the victim to stay in the United States and receive services, the victim must ‘prove’ that they were severely harmed from the trafficking and help law enforcement prosecute the traffickers (2009). If they do not wish to help prosecute the traffickers, they are deported back to their country of origin. On a micro and mezzo level, Social workers would act as clinicians and brokers in helping these victims deal with the horrors they have lived through and connecting them with the resources they need while working with law enforcement (2009).
Although it is necessary for Social Workers to address these issues in a collaborative manner with other disciplines, “representatives of the human rights-based approach to trafficking (social workers) place more attention on the protection of the human rights of trafficked persons than on prevention”(Zierer, 2007). This is where Social Workers act on a Macro level as educators in informing the community and population at risk of what the dangers of human trafficking are and what it looks like as well as advocating for more services to victims and harsher punishment to the perpetrator. Under TVPA, only those who are severely harmed through trafficking are considered to be victims. In relation to those forced into the sex-trade, such as minors selling themselves on the city streets, they are not protected under TVPA and are usually tried as criminals and not seen as victims. Through effective advocating and lobbying, the workers and clients at Girls Educational and Mentoring Services (GEMS) of New York, they helped pass the Safe Harbor for Exploited Children Act that defines young children who prostitute themselves as victims of human trafficking under TVPA. With this act, these children forced into sexual servitude are no longer seen as criminals but as those in need of social and legal services (Kalergis, 2009). Zierer effectively summarizes how social workers can take on collaborative approach with other disciplines in her statement that
Social workers shall work out — together with other professionals — new methods, tools and quality standards in the “chain of care” for the affected women and also for a coordinated co-operation among professionals. Beside Round Tables or the cross-border exchange of best practice models manuals for the treatment of trafficked women could help in the direct work with clients and could also give other professionals the change to understand the complex and sensitive topic (2007).
Human trafficking will not cease to exist unless multiple disciplines start working together to successfully eradicate modern day slavery once and for all. In regarding refugees, immigrants and those seeking asylum in the United States, Social Workers would again act as brokers, case managers within Refugee Resettlement Agencies, and clinicians on the micro and mezzo level (Maschi, Bradley, Ward, 2009). Social workers cannot just address issues within the micro level as this would not support a two-pronged approach. Social workers also must address macro level issues with refugees through advocating for more effective and humane treatment of those seeking asylum as “the conditions immigrants experience in the United States often remind the asylum seekers of the persecution they endured in their own countries at the hands of law enforcement, prison guards, and soldiers” (2009). Although all refugees to the United States may not be granted asylum, we must strive to make the process of seeking it the least stressful it can be. Social workers can act as a buffer between law enforcement or the government and their client in receiving all the resources they need. Special Issues As stated previously, there are several areas of interest that a forensic social worker can pursue when working with international populations, each with their own special needs and issues. Unfortunately, there is a serious lack of research and information about these populations; therefore, it is imperative for future social workers to understand the unique issues that these populations face. Working as a forensic social worker, there are three types of sub-populations that one may come in contact with: refugees or asylum seekers, victims of human trafficking, and victims of sex slavery. All of these populations require assistance in ensuring their equal protection under the law and the preservation of their human rights.
In Article 1 of the General Provisions of The United Nations 1951 Convention and Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, refugees are classified as persons who flee their home countries and are incapable or averse to return, due to a fear of persecution based on religious status, nationality, race, or due to involvement of a certain social or political group (United Nations Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons). Many of these refugees face war on a daily basis and have lost family members and/or friends because of the tragedies in their home country. A growing number of refugees are classified as unaccompanied refugee minors, which are persons under the age of eighteen who have left their home country and have no living parents or guardians to help them. Most of these individuals live well below the international poverty line, have little or no education, some have been sexually assaulted, and many live in constant fear that the persons that attacked their families will attack them as well. In addition to all of this, because of the legal processes in place, it can take months or years for a person to achieve refugee status and finally be able to safely leave their country.
There has been a significant amount of research within the refugee population that studies the effects of post-traumatic stress disorder because of past traumatization and the resettlement process. Once an individual has been legally awarded refugee status and is finally able to leave their country, they must complete the task of acculturating, or reforming one’s identity to include the values and expectations of the host society. It is during this phase that individuals are in the most desperate need of assistance because they need help in locating the funding for basic services including housing, education, employment, food, etc. In addition, these individuals may be facing disappointed expectations of what their new life would be like, and because of the significant amount of stress associated with acculturation, they can develop serious substance abuse problems.
Refugee is a term that includes persons that flee their country for a variety of reasons, and unfortunately, recent trends indicate that the two sub-populations in the most need of assistance are victims of human trafficking and victims of sex slavery. As far as human trafficking is concerned,
“The United Nations estimates that 4 million men, women and children are bought and sold each year. The US State Department's 2005 "Trafficking in Persons" report estimates that 800,000 to two million women and girls, some as young as age five, are trafficked across national borders each year and bought and sold for sexual purposes. The same report notes that, at any given time in our world, 12.3 million women, men, and children are enslaved in forced labor, bonded labor, sexual servitude, involuntary servitude, or domestic servitude. The Federal Bureau of Investigation reports that, in the USA alone, trafficking and slavery generate 9.5 billion dollars a year” (Sisters)
Although men, women and children of all ages and all nationalities are at risk, the most vulnerable of this population are the women, girls and young boys (United, 2010). Women and girls are usually sought after for purposes of sexual exploitation (United, 2010). Furthermore, runaway youth, undocumented migrants and oppressed groups of individuals, are also at a very high risk for human trafficking. Due to the fact that traffickers prefer to prey on people who are vulnerable, these specific populations are often times a target due to the fact that they are easier to convince or manipulate (Polaris).
One disheartening and ongoing issue in many countries is sex slavery, or forced prostitution— where an individual is forced to engage in sexual activity. It is also closely involved with human trafficking. Many times children as young as six or seven years old are toted away and sold into sex slavery. India has the largest number of modern slaves. Many of them now willingly sell sex, but many still, unwillingly, are forced into sexual activity and are punished when they do not comply (Kristoff & WuDunn 2009). Sex slavery is an issue in various other places around the world such as Pakistan, Iran, and different areas of Africa, and there are even cases in the United States.
One of the biggest reasons why sex slavery has flourished is because of poverty. In many cases, a family may sell their own kids to a brothel, or perhaps unknowingly. Kids, particularly females, are the most vulnerable, because they are targeted because it is generally perceived that the younger the child, the less likely they are to run away or fight. The longer the child stays in the brothel, the longer they realize they have no other option in life but to give up their bodies. They have no education or skills, so they are often scared to leave or escape, so their spirits are quickly broken. Brothel owners may also feed their victims drugs, such as meth, as a way to keep unruly girls from fleeing or as a way to make them return if they do escape (Kristoff & WuDunn 2009).
The abuse these victims face if they do not engage in sexual activity is brutal; sex slavery nearly sounds like a walk in the park compare to some of the horrific stories girls have lived to tell. Women and young girls have reported they have suffered from the following: gang rape, beatings, stabbing, whippings, starvation, burns, sexual diseases that go untreated, abortions with no medicine, and humiliation, among other atrocities. Recto-vaginal and vesico-vaginal fistulas (resulting from a stick being shoved inside a victim) break either the bladder and/or rectum causes urine and feces to flow freely at any time, are common in the Congo (Kristoff & WuDunn 2009). Measures are being taken to promote awareness of these types of conditions. Half the Sky written by Nicholas Kristof and Sheryl WuDunn discusses the oppression of women around the world, particularly their roles as sex slaves. Awareness is the first step in helping to address this issue. The next step is education. Unfortunately, women are still being treated as objects instead of valuable assets that should be revered. Awareness, education, and a dedication to supporting and protecting human rights is key to diminishing sex slavery. Future Directions Although social workers have made progress over the last century, there is still a lot of work to be done. Technology will continue to play a role in spreading awareness globally. The more people that are aware of the issues around the world, the more people will, hopefully, get involved. Other than news as a resource, many online articles and websites are spreading the word. There are also books and movies conveying the crises our population faces whether it’s in our own neighborhood or in another nation. Although most of us would like to see the discrimination, sex slavery, human trafficking, and other issues disappear for good, chances are, they will always be present somewhere. But, as long as social workers continue to act ethically and fight for fair treatment of humans, these issues can be lessened. It is also important for social workers who show an interest in these populations to advocate on their behalf and to make their issues known to the public, so that they can adequately assist these persons that are in desperate need of our assistance. A considerable amount of research needs to be done in order to gain a better understanding of the best treatment methods to use when addressing international populations because their cultural differences are so great. Conclusion To conclude, as discussed, there is a considerable amount of assistance needed by refugees, victims of human trafficking, and victims of sex slavery, in order to preserve the basic human rights that are entitled to all individuals. When working with these individuals, a social worker must ensure that they are utilizing the strengths-based approach and empowering these individuals to take control of their lives, in order to successfully integrate into their host society. Working as a forensic social worker, it is important to understand the issues regarding these populations so that you may better be able to assist them utilizing the two pronged approach and advocating on the macro level, as well as providing individualized assistance on the micro level. These populations change rapidly and because there is a lack of past research, it is important to stay informed on the most current theories and treatment methods as new research and theories develop. Many of these individuals can feel abandoned by their government and that they are somehow not worthy of prosperity; therefore it is necessary for forensic social workers to utilize empathy in practice and show these individuals that they deserve to have their basic human rights needs met and preserve the dignity and worth of the person.
Please note that the wiki is not allowing me to correct the paper to apply the correct APA regulations regarding spacing and indentation. Also, I have tried countless times to correct the font in the resources section to be unified as Times New Roman style; however, no matter what I do, it's not correcting. Thanks, Nicole DeCarufel**
by Danielle Clark, Kristin Clements, Christina Daoust, Nicole DeCarufel, and Erin Ward
University of Central Florida
Social workers must work to understand and protect all persons of potential human rights issues or violations, not only because it falls under the practice responsibilities on the national and international level, but also because social workers are ethically committed to preserving the rights of all individuals. The Universal declaration of Human Rights is available on the United Nations website and some of the basic tenants of this declaration are that everyone has the right to: fair housing, health, education, freedom of religion, safe employment with fair compensation, life, liberty and security of person, to not be held in slavery, and to not be subjected to torture or degrading treatment or punishment (www.un.org). Unfortunately, there are currently many circumstances throughout the world where an individual’s basic human rights are not being met and it our responsibility as social workers to advocate for these clients and to assist them however we can. Being from other countries and cultures, these clients are often not able to navigate the legal system themselves; therefore it is important for a forensic social worker to recognize the special needs of these populations on a macro and micro level in order to better assist them.
Background
According to their website, the International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) is a “global organization striving for social justice, human rights and social development through the development of social work, best practices and international cooperation between social workers and their professional organizations” (http://www.ifsw.org/). The IFSW was founded in 1956 and was adapted from the Permanent Secretariat of Social Workers that was established in 1928. This IFSW is one of many organizations that have helped to raise awareness and protect human rights in several nations. The committee members are quite diverse and come from all over the world, in places such as the United Kingdom, Africa, Singapore, Denmark, New Zealand, Brazil, and Canada. The IFSW adopted the first international code of ethics in 1976 and is guided by specific principles. Social workers are to abide by certain principles and help to defend and protect an individual’s, family’s, and/or community’s well being whether it be on a physical, emotional, or spiritual level. Some of the ongoing challenges social workers face include, but are not limited to: discrimination (race, gender, religion, socioeconomic status, etc.), lack of resources or difficulty distributing resources, unfair practices and policies, and lack of support (government, community, or individual) (http://www.ifsw.org/).
Practice – Settings, Roles & Ethics
The Social Work profession has always been committed to Social Justice, with an emphasis on the vulnerable and oppressed individuals. The Code of Ethics embodies this commitment and the values that Social Workers hold (Hodge, 2008). One of the most important issues to address in the field of international social work is human trafficking, which has become a new found social problem that holds little literature and research in the Social Work field. This is surprising, considering the values in which Social Work stands upon. Due to much lobbying, the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000, with its amendment in 2003, is the first response to the Human trafficking outcry (Hodge, 2008). This Act recognizes that our current judicial system lacks the legislation to help victims of Human Trafficking and that existing laws failed to protect the victims of this crime once they were found. As well as lobbying to pass legislation there are many roles that social workers play in order to help groups and individuals of need (Hodge, 2008).
Advocacy has become a major aspect of Social Work, and with this particular group of individuals, may help obtain the resources needed to rebuild their lives. There are many aspects to advocating for these victims; such as changing public norms and the media to protect victims from sexual exploitation by discouraging images that promote violence and eroticization (Hodge, 2008). Advocacy can also exist in working to enforce stricter penalties on offenders and consistency of enforcing these penalties through current law enforcement personnel. An efficient means in helping to protect victims would be to participate in organizing, multidisciplinary teams (Hodge, 2008). These teams would include an array of professionals including; lawyers, certified legal representatives, paralegals, refugee case managers, volunteers, interpreters, and local and federal law enforcement (Maschi, 2009). The goal in working with different professionals is to bring together people that are the most likely to identify potential victims, provide protective and rehabilitation services, and help in the rebuilding of their lives (Hodge, 2008). As well as working with different professionals, social workers must also be active workers in many types of settings within Forensic social work.
Refugee resettlement agencies, private non-profit agencies, immigration detention centers and also immigration services are just a few of the forensic social work settings that could be involved with this group of individuals (Maschi, 2009). By using these fellow professionals and working in an array of settings social workers can play a more significant role in alleviating our common day form of modern-slavery (Hodge, 2008). However, when working with these individuals, as well as many other groups of individuals, it sometimes becomes difficult to put ones personal ethics aside to focus on the needs of the client. Often when researchers are collecting data on these women and children, they must witness violent and/or illegal acts. When in these settings, it is important however, to not interact with the illegal or violent issue occurring. Any intervention could result in a harmful way instead of a positive one (Cwikel, 2005).
Also, when dealing with these victims it is important to accentuate strength-empowerment. If victims become too reliant on their social worker, it could have a major negative impact on their lives when the social worker has completed their duties. This is one of the many challenges that social workers are faced with when they are working with a population that may not have any support system. The most important thing in a client/ social worker setting is to have trust within that relationship (Maschi, 2009). The trauma this population has endured will make trust much harder to form. The social worker will function as an advocate, an educator, a mediator, and will also be involved in the treatment/therapy and referrals for every client. This population of victims has endured such trauma that a social worker will be a key to their recovery and the rebuilding of their lives.
Theory
Human Trafficking, in and of itself, is a theory of modern day slavery. According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services fact sheet “after drug dealing, human trafficking is tied with the illegal arms industry as the second largest criminal industry in the world today, and it is the fastest growing.” Maschi, Bradley and Ward stated that, “people are trafficked into many forms of work including: farm work, construction, factory work, commercial sex work, domestic services, restaurant work, begging, and so on” (2009).
Due to the variations in types of trafficking, social work practitioners need to recognize that human trafficking victims come in many different forms. Victims can include men, women and children from any race and nationality. Not only do victims come in different forms, but they also enter the human trafficking “ring” under various circumstances. In most cases, “traffickers use force, fraud and coercion to compel women, men and children to engage in these activities” (U.S., 2009). When working with victims of human trafficking, social work practitioners should take into account the four theories of victimization. The theories are as follows:
1.) The victim precipitation theory: “views victimology from the standpoint that the victim themselves may actually initiate, either passively or actively, the criminal act that ultimately leads to injury or death. During passive precipitation the victim unconsciously exhibits behaviors or characteristics that instigate or encourage the attack…Active precipitation is the opposite of the aforementioned. Victimization occurs under this theory through the threatening or provocative actions of the victim” (Lain, 2008).
2.) The lifestyle theory: “purports that individuals are targeted based on their lifestyle choices which expose them to criminal offenders and situations in which crimes may be committed” (Lain, 2008).
3.) The deviant place theory: states that the more you place yourself in dangerous places and environments, the more likely you are to become a target of a crime, even if you take safety precautions (Siegel, 2009 & Lain, 2008).
4.) The routine activity theory: “explains the rate of victimization through a set of situations that reflect the routines of typical individuals. 1. The availability of suitable targets, 2. The absence of capable guardians, 3. The presence of motivated offenders. According to this theory, the presence of one or more of these creates a higher risk of victimization” (Lain, 2008).
These theories tell us that there is not just one main cause for a person to become victimized. These theories also allow for practitioners to gain a better understanding of the context in which a person was entered into the human trafficking business. Thus, practitioners may be able to dig deeper with clients to uncover important information pertaining to their case at hand (if there is one), as well as provide clients with better, more personalized resources to help them put their lives back together again.
These theories may also play a significant role in the prevention of human trafficking. Practitioners may be able to help combat a rising human trafficking rate, by simply advocating on behalf of these victims and providing the general public with information that might help safeguard them from being sold into this horrific trade. For example, based on the four theories, practitioners might suggest that the public protect themselves by being extra cautious when replying to job ads (especially ads located abroad). Practitioners might also encouraging women and young girls to not dress too provocatively and to stay away from dangerous neighborhoods or locations that might not be safe. The results of such preventative measures could produce more public awareness on the issue, which in turn might help to lower the currently rising rate of people being trafficked.
SocioLegal Environment (PIE and the Two Pronged Approach)
This section will address the SocioLegal environment or two pronged approach in which social workers assist victims of human trafficking and refugees seeking asylum in the United States. Social Workers are most likely to engage with refugees, asylees’s and victims of human trafficking in the courts, diversions and community social services. The Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA) passed in 2000 by the United States government protects victims who have been trafficked into the U.S for domestic or sexual servitude, bondage or slavery (Maschi, Bradley, Ward 2009). In order to attain a T-Visa, which would allow the victim to stay in the United States and receive services, the victim must ‘prove’ that they were severely harmed from the trafficking and help law enforcement prosecute the traffickers (2009). If they do not wish to help prosecute the traffickers, they are deported back to their country of origin. On a micro and mezzo level, Social workers would act as clinicians and brokers in helping these victims deal with the horrors they have lived through and connecting them with the resources they need while working with law enforcement (2009).
Although it is necessary for Social Workers to address these issues in a collaborative manner with other disciplines, “representatives of the human rights-based approach to trafficking (social workers) place more attention on the protection of the human rights of trafficked persons than on prevention”(Zierer, 2007). This is where Social Workers act on a Macro level as educators in informing the community and population at risk of what the dangers of human trafficking are and what it looks like as well as advocating for more services to victims and harsher punishment to the perpetrator. Under TVPA, only those who are severely harmed through trafficking are considered to be victims. In relation to those forced into the sex-trade, such as minors selling themselves on the city streets, they are not protected under TVPA and are usually tried as criminals and not seen as victims. Through effective advocating and lobbying, the workers and clients at Girls Educational and Mentoring Services (GEMS) of New York, they helped pass the Safe Harbor for Exploited Children Act that defines young children who prostitute themselves as victims of human trafficking under TVPA. With this act, these children forced into sexual servitude are no longer seen as criminals but as those in need of social and legal services (Kalergis, 2009). Zierer effectively summarizes how social workers can take on collaborative approach with other disciplines in her statement that
Social workers shall work out — together with other professionals — new methods, tools and quality standards in the “chain of care” for the affected women and also for a coordinated co-operation among professionals. Beside Round Tables or the cross-border exchange of best practice models manuals for the treatment of trafficked women could help in the direct work with clients and could also give other professionals the change to understand the complex and sensitive topic (2007).
Human trafficking will not cease to exist unless multiple disciplines start working together to successfully eradicate modern day slavery once and for all. In regarding refugees, immigrants and those seeking asylum in the United States, Social Workers would again act as brokers, case managers within Refugee Resettlement Agencies, and clinicians on the micro and mezzo level (Maschi, Bradley, Ward, 2009). Social workers cannot just address issues within the micro level as this would not support a two-pronged approach. Social workers also must address macro level issues with refugees through advocating for more effective and humane treatment of those seeking asylum as “the conditions immigrants experience in the United States often remind the asylum seekers of the persecution they endured in their own countries at the hands of law enforcement, prison guards, and soldiers” (2009). Although all refugees to the United States may not be granted asylum, we must strive to make the process of seeking it the least stressful it can be. Social workers can act as a buffer between law enforcement or the government and their client in receiving all the resources they need.
Special Issues
As stated previously, there are several areas of interest that a forensic social worker can pursue when working with international populations, each with their own special needs and issues. Unfortunately, there is a serious lack of research and information about these populations; therefore, it is imperative for future social workers to understand the unique issues that these populations face. Working as a forensic social worker, there are three types of sub-populations that one may come in contact with: refugees or asylum seekers, victims of human trafficking, and victims of sex slavery. All of these populations require assistance in ensuring their equal protection under the law and the preservation of their human rights.
In Article 1 of the General Provisions of The United Nations 1951 Convention and Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, refugees are classified as persons who flee their home countries and are incapable or averse to return, due to a fear of persecution based on religious status, nationality, race, or due to involvement of a certain social or political group (United Nations Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons). Many of these refugees face war on a daily basis and have lost family members and/or friends because of the tragedies in their home country. A growing number of refugees are classified as unaccompanied refugee minors, which are persons under the age of eighteen who have left their home country and have no living parents or guardians to help them. Most of these individuals live well below the international poverty line, have little or no education, some have been sexually assaulted, and many live in constant fear that the persons that attacked their families will attack them as well. In addition to all of this, because of the legal processes in place, it can take months or years for a person to achieve refugee status and finally be able to safely leave their country.
There has been a significant amount of research within the refugee population that studies the effects of post-traumatic stress disorder because of past traumatization and the resettlement process. Once an individual has been legally awarded refugee status and is finally able to leave their country, they must complete the task of acculturating, or reforming one’s identity to include the values and expectations of the host society. It is during this phase that individuals are in the most desperate need of assistance because they need help in locating the funding for basic services including housing, education, employment, food, etc. In addition, these individuals may be facing disappointed expectations of what their new life would be like, and because of the significant amount of stress associated with acculturation, they can develop serious substance abuse problems.
Refugee is a term that includes persons that flee their country for a variety of reasons, and unfortunately, recent trends indicate that the two sub-populations in the most need of assistance are victims of human trafficking and victims of sex slavery. As far as human trafficking is concerned,
“The United Nations estimates that 4 million men, women and children are bought and sold each year. The US State Department's 2005 "Trafficking in Persons" report estimates that 800,000 to two million women and girls, some as young as age five, are trafficked across national borders each year and bought and sold for sexual purposes. The same report notes that, at any given time in our world, 12.3 million women, men, and children are enslaved in forced labor, bonded labor, sexual servitude, involuntary servitude, or domestic servitude. The Federal Bureau of Investigation reports that, in the USA alone, trafficking and slavery generate 9.5 billion dollars a year” (Sisters)
Although men, women and children of all ages and all nationalities are at risk, the most vulnerable of this population are the women, girls and young boys (United, 2010). Women and girls are usually sought after for purposes of sexual exploitation (United, 2010). Furthermore, runaway youth, undocumented migrants and oppressed groups of individuals, are also at a very high risk for human trafficking. Due to the fact that traffickers prefer to prey on people who are vulnerable, these specific populations are often times a target due to the fact that they are easier to convince or manipulate (Polaris).
One disheartening and ongoing issue in many countries is sex slavery, or forced prostitution— where an individual is forced to engage in sexual activity. It is also closely involved with human trafficking. Many times children as young as six or seven years old are toted away and sold into sex slavery. India has the largest number of modern slaves. Many of them now willingly sell sex, but many still, unwillingly, are forced into sexual activity and are punished when they do not comply (Kristoff & WuDunn 2009). Sex slavery is an issue in various other places around the world such as Pakistan, Iran, and different areas of Africa, and there are even cases in the United States.
One of the biggest reasons why sex slavery has flourished is because of poverty. In many cases, a family may sell their own kids to a brothel, or perhaps unknowingly. Kids, particularly females, are the most vulnerable, because they are targeted because it is generally perceived that the younger the child, the less likely they are to run away or fight. The longer the child stays in the brothel, the longer they realize they have no other option in life but to give up their bodies. They have no education or skills, so they are often scared to leave or escape, so their spirits are quickly broken. Brothel owners may also feed their victims drugs, such as meth, as a way to keep unruly girls from fleeing or as a way to make them return if they do escape (Kristoff & WuDunn 2009).
The abuse these victims face if they do not engage in sexual activity is brutal; sex slavery nearly sounds like a walk in the park compare to some of the horrific stories girls have lived to tell. Women and young girls have reported they have suffered from the following: gang rape, beatings, stabbing, whippings, starvation, burns, sexual diseases that go untreated, abortions with no medicine, and humiliation, among other atrocities. Recto-vaginal and vesico-vaginal fistulas (resulting from a stick being shoved inside a victim) break either the bladder and/or rectum causes urine and feces to flow freely at any time, are common in the Congo (Kristoff & WuDunn 2009). Measures are being taken to promote awareness of these types of conditions. Half the Sky written by Nicholas Kristof and Sheryl WuDunn discusses the oppression of women around the world, particularly their roles as sex slaves. Awareness is the first step in helping to address this issue. The next step is education. Unfortunately, women are still being treated as objects instead of valuable assets that should be revered. Awareness, education, and a dedication to supporting and protecting human rights is key to diminishing sex slavery.
Future Directions
Although social workers have made progress over the last century, there is still a lot of work to be done. Technology will continue to play a role in spreading awareness globally. The more people that are aware of the issues around the world, the more people will, hopefully, get involved. Other than news as a resource, many online articles and websites are spreading the word. There are also books and movies conveying the crises our population faces whether it’s in our own neighborhood or in another nation. Although most of us would like to see the discrimination, sex slavery, human trafficking, and other issues disappear for good, chances are, they will always be present somewhere. But, as long as social workers continue to act ethically and fight for fair treatment of humans, these issues can be lessened. It is also important for social workers who show an interest in these populations to advocate on their behalf and to make their issues known to the public, so that they can adequately assist these persons that are in desperate need of our assistance. A considerable amount of research needs to be done in order to gain a better understanding of the best treatment methods to use when addressing international populations because their cultural differences are so great.
Conclusion
To conclude, as discussed, there is a considerable amount of assistance needed by refugees, victims of human trafficking, and victims of sex slavery, in order to preserve the basic human rights that are entitled to all individuals. When working with these individuals, a social worker must ensure that they are utilizing the strengths-based approach and empowering these individuals to take control of their lives, in order to successfully integrate into their host society. Working as a forensic social worker, it is important to understand the issues regarding these populations so that you may better be able to assist them utilizing the two pronged approach and advocating on the macro level, as well as providing individualized assistance on the micro level. These populations change rapidly and because there is a lack of past research, it is important to stay informed on the most current theories and treatment methods as new research and theories develop. Many of these individuals can feel abandoned by their government and that they are somehow not worthy of prosperity; therefore it is necessary for forensic social workers to utilize empathy in practice and show these individuals that they deserve to have their basic human rights needs met and preserve the dignity and worth of the person.
Resources:
Cwikel, J., & Hoban, E. (2005). Contentious issues in research on trafficked women working in the sex industry: Study design, ethics, and methodology. Journal of Sex Research, 42(4), 306-316. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.lib.ucf.edu/login?URL=http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.lib.ucf.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2005-15603-004&site=ehost-live
Hodge, D. R. (2008). Sexual trafficking in the united states: A domestic problem with transnational dimensions. Social Work, 53(2), 143-152. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.lib.ucf.edu/login?URL=http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.lib.ucf.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2008-08435-005&site=ehost-live
Kristof, N., & WuDunn, S. (2009). Half the sky: Turning oppression into opportunity for women worldwide. New York, NY: Random House, Inc.
Lain. (2008). The four theories of victimization. Retrieved from http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/689861/the_four_theories_of_victimization_pg4.html?cat=17
Maschi, T., Bradley, C., & Ward, K. (Eds.) (2009). Forensic social work: Psychosocial and legal issues in diverse practice settings. New York, NY: Springer Publishing.
McGrath, J. (2009). Theories of victimization: victim precipitation, lifestyle, deviant place, and routine activities. Retrieved from http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/1680773/theories_of_victimization_victim_precipitation.html?cat=51
Polaris Project Action Center. Human trafficking FAQ’s. Retrieved from http://actioncenter.polarisproject.org/learn/human-trafficking-faq
Siegel, L. (2009). Criminology (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth.
Sisters of the Divine Savior. Human trafficking: Vulnerable men, women, and children in slavery. Retrieved from http://sdssisters.org/slavery/
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Fact sheet: Human trafficking. (2009). Retrieved from http://www.acf.hhs.gov/trafficking/about/fact_human.html
United Nations Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons, Geneva, Switzerland, 2-25 July 1951. Convention and Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, Geneva, Switzerland, 2-25 July 1951. Geneva, 1952.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). (2010). People vulnerable to human trafficking. Retrieved from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/hiv-aids/people-vulnerable-to-human-trafficking.html